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4. Concluding remarksThis paper investigates the causal relationship between financialdevelopment, openness, economic growth, energy consumption andcarbon emissions in Turkey for 1960–2007 period. The bounds F‐testfor cointegration test yields evidence of a long-run relationship between per capita carbon emissions, per capita energy consumption,per capita real income, the square of per capita real income, opennessand financial development. The results also support the validity of EKChypothesis in Turkish economy. It means that the level of CO2 emissions initially increases with income, until it reaches its stabilizationpoint, then it declines in Turkey. In addition, the coefficient of openness variable is also positive at 5% significance level which showsthat an increase in foreign trade to GDP ratio (openness) results inan increase in per capita carbon emissions. Finally, financial development variable has no significant effect on per capita carbon emissionsin the long- run. The coefficients of estimated ECTs are also negativeand statistically significant at 1% confidence level. These values indicate that any deviation from the long-run equilibrium between variables is corrected for each period to return the long-run equilibriumlevel.This paper also explores causal relationship between the variablesby using error-correction based Granger causality models. The resultsof both Granger causality models can be summarized as follows:i) there is an evidence of a long-run causal relationship from per capita
energy consumption, per capita real income, the square of per capita
real income, openness and financial development to per capita carbon
emissions. ii) There is an evidence of a short-run unidirectional causal
relationship from financial development to per capita energy consumption, per capita real income and the square of per capita real
income.
Finally, due to limited data availability, the results in this paper can
be much enriched in the future, but hopefully the research is conducive
to not only Turkey's financial reforms but also carbon emissions intensity reduction efforts. We hope that other researchers will use our results and methodology to get improved insights into the economic–
finance and environment nexus in other developing countries.
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