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THE MEDIA IN ELECTIONS I
Electoral System's and Methods of Study
INTRODUCTION
From presidential debates to those seemingly ubiquitous political ails, elections have long been the realm of politics in which the role and impact of the mass media were most strikingly evident. The mass media have, in fact, become increasingly central to the electoral process in the American system.
Chapters 10 to 13 deal with the media in elections, with the focus princi¬pally on the media in presidential elections. This focus is because of the impor-tance of the presidency for the political system in the United States and because the media and presidential elections have been the overwhelming focus of research in the media and elections area. The media's role in congressional and state elections is also discussed, however.
This chapter has two basic parts. The first part sets the scene by discussing the nature of the electoral system and fundamental changes in that system— generated in part by the increasing presence of the mass media. The second part, intended especially for students, provides a review of principal methods of study for more systematic analysis of the media's role in elections, along with some issues involved in those methods. The point of the second part of the chapter is this: One can walk into any fast-food place or corner bar and get mere impressions of the media's role in elections but the subject is too important for mere impressions; we need to take a good look at the methods social scientists use to more systematically analyze the media's role. Chapter 11 discusses what has been found on the news media's coverage of elections, Chapter 12 discusses the modes and techniques of communication used by the candidates in elec-
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The Nalure ol the Elecloi.il System and the Media Factor
tions, and Chapter 13 discusses the impact of election communications on the public and the public's involvement in the process.
THE NATURE OF THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM AND THE MEDIA FACTOR
Changes—Parties and the Electoral Process
The electoral process is the principal mechanism of democracy; it is intended to link the mass public with government to enable the people to give basic di¬rection to the government through their electoral choices. But how, in a mass society, can this electoral process be organized? Traditionally, the answer has been: by the political parties. Indeed, the leading political scientist E. E. Schattschneider suggested this conclusion:
The rise of political parties is indubitably one of the principal distinguishing marks of modern government. The parties, in fact, have played a major role as makers of govern¬ments, more especially they have been the makers of democratic government. It should be stated flatly at the outset that [my thesis is]... the political parties created democracy and that modern democracy is unthinkable save in terms of the parties.1
The underlying point is that most people do not have the time or inclina¬tion to make monitoring government and various candidates for office a full-time job. For popular control of government to work, the public must have some help in sorting out the choices. Also, for government, especially the legis-lature, to work in a coherent fashion and for the public to have a focus for hold¬ing officers accountable for the general direction of government, there must be a force that politically organizes government activity and that can be held col¬lectively responsible for government actions. That force has traditionally been the political parties.
Although political parties in the American system have never fulfilled those functions perfectly, in earlier eras the parties played the major role in organizing the campaign efforts of their candidates and served as a principal way for the candidates to communicate with the public through party workers working the precincts and so on. The vast majority of the public identified with one party or the other and regularly voted for virtually all the party's candidates on the ballot, thus providing the foundation of the party. Parties have provided symbols and general patterns of policy direction, which give people cues to help sort out electoral choices. Parties were the principal basis for making voting decisions, and they were rather stable, long-term bases.2
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Chapter 10 The Media in Elections I
Over the past three or four decades, however, things have changed. The parties have declined significantly in the role they play in the American elec-torate. Substantially fewer people identify with a party—from about 80% in the 1940s down to 63% to 65% by the 1970s and staying at about that level since— and more people identify themselves as "independents" (at least a third). Fur¬ther, the number who strongly identify with a party has dropped by at least as much, and the number of voters who vote "straight" tickets has declined dra¬matically. A few scholars have argued that those who say they are independents but indicate a "leaning" toward one or the other party should actually be consid¬ered "closet" Democrats or Republicans.3 But as two top scholars sum up: "Mountains of survey evidence attest to Americans' declining concern with par¬tisanship and the role of political parties in U.S. government."4
We should also note that interest groups have greatly increased in numbers, financing, and intensity over the past three-plus decades. As scholar Jeffrey Berry points out: "The United States is not just a country with an increasing number of active interest groups, but a country whose citizens look more and more to interest groups to speak for them in the political process. The implica¬tions are disquieting."-1 Indeed, Martin Wattenberg pointed to the principal implication when he observed the "growing importance of special interest groups and the dwindling of the principles of collective responsibility. The result, as Morris Fiorina has written, is that we now have 'a system that articu¬lates [a number of] interests superbly but aggregates them poorly.'"6
More Changes—The Media and the Contemporary Manner of Electoral Politics
Also during the past three or four decades, the public's dependence on the mass media for information on and impressions of candidates, their campaigns, issues, and institutional performance has increased. The central way campaigns now communicate to the public is through the media. As Thomas Patterson has said: "Today's presidential campaign is essentially a mass media campaign. ... It is no exaggeration to say that, for the large majority of voters, the campaign has little reality apart from its media version."' The same applies to the typical Senate and governor's election and to many U.S. Flouse elections.
Television gave candidates a means of communicating directly to the public, without using party organizations. Clearly, if that capacity was not the prime cause of the decline of parties (as some contend), it was at least a major con-tributing and exacerbating factor. In any case, campaigns are now fundamentally organized around the mass media, especially television. The schedule, the appearances, the themes, and so on are geared to the deadlines, need for visuals, and other factors characteristic of the gathering and presentation of TV news— or of the medium itself, in the case of political ads. Newspapers are also "played to," of course, but it is television that is the prime focus of campaign communi-
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The Mature ot the Electoral System and the Medio Factor
cations. As California political consultant Joe Cerrell said: "The three most important things in a state-wide election: number 1, television, number 2, tele¬vision, and number 3, television."8 Further, the "rise of political consultants," as Larry Sabato has best detailed,9 has provided expert "hired guns" to enable the candidate (with ample money) to make most effective use of the media in gen¬eral and the powerful medium of television in particular.
In addition, elections have become increasingly candidate-centered. The principal factor in elections now is the individual candidate and how that candi¬date is evaluated by the public as a result of mass media communications. With party identification greatly lessened, and with the rather low level of public information and opinion coherence on political matters, information and impressions on the candidates, as garnered from the media, are increasingly central in determining peoples' votes. These are short-term, unstable factors in determining the vote.
We should note that candidates are more self-selecting today than in earlier eras. Individuals who have media prominence and/or have access to ample amounts of money and time decide they will run and proceed to form their own organizations and run their own campaigns (with varying connections to local, state, and national party organizations). It should also be noted that the cam¬paign finance laws adopted in the 1970s channel public campaign funds directly into candidates' campaign coffers, bypassing the parties and thus adding to their weakening. The basic design of the nomination process is what allows this self-selection and general weakening of the parties. To an explanation of that nomi¬nation process we turn next, after a quote that summarizes what we have just discussed. As scholar James MacGregor Burns has observed: "Parties [once] identified popular wants, defined popular needs, channeled popular hopes and aspirations, organized voters' expectations and demands. So do the mass media today, but in so different a manner as to have helped bring about a transforma¬tion of the American political system."10
Still More Changes—The American Nomination Process and Campaign Finance
The presidential and nonpresidential nomination processes are quite different in the United States. The dominant form in the nomination stage for both is the primary election—a form that has been a major factor in altering the landscape of American e