Political development, or progress in the achievement of fundamental political
values such as liberty (personal rights) and equality (broad participation in public affairs),
is an important measure of improvement in societal welfare, as important perhaps as the
more commonly tracked measures of income growth and human development. The
Japanese local government system has engendered, or at least accommodated, a significant
amount of political development in the above-noted sense of the word (see Macdougall,
2001).
This growth in political inclusiveness has come about largely as a result of a
process in which local governments, responding to citizen concerns and pressure, took
policy initiatives which often went beyond (and were sometimes in conflict with) national
guidelines and practices but in which they nevertheless prevailed. Indeed, in some cases,
the national government eventually adopted the local initiative as national policy, thereby
showing that it was not immune to the power of rising citizen concerns, validated and
projected by local government actions. Through this process, Japanese citizens have
managed to forge new implicit “contracts” with local and national authorities which give
them greater participation in the decision-making process and provide greater
opportunities for their preferences to be reflected in public policy.
The most important and certainly the best known mechanism for greater citizen
participation in Japanese political life is the “citizens movement”. As already mentioned,
such movements emerged spontaneously in the 1960s and 1970s as a way for citizens to
make themselves heard on matters related to the quality of life. The most prominent ones
focused on urban and industrial pollution control.
Ultimately 3000 such movements were
6 FarrukhIqball
organized and they dealt, as might be expected, with a correspondingly broad range of
local and national issues.
Other mechanisms of participation include consultative committees in which
citizens are invited to serve together with local or national officials and politicians to review
and monitor controversial projects. And finally, as its value has become more widely
accepted, a new form of citizen participation has taken root in Japan through the formation
of the so-called “citizens networks”. These are not protest groups (like the movements of
the 1960s and 1970s) but rather non-governmental groups of concerned citizens and
professionals who often take the initiative in presenting proposals to local and national
authorities, especially in the areas of urban and environmental planning. These networks
have grown substantially since the early 1980s and reflect the more consultative and
partnership-oriented tenor of this latter period of citizen-government relations.
By now, Japanese citizens from a broad range of geographic, occupational and
income backgrounds have acquired effective political voice and are able to influence
policies which affect both collective and individual welfare. For example, rising citizen
participation has had an impact on the location and design of public works: over time,
citizens and communities have pushed their way into the decision-making process and
implementation of many public works projects. Specific examples include the siting and
design of airports (e.g., Narita case, where citizen protest delayed the construction and
opening of the airport considerably), petrochemical complexes (e.g., Mishima and
Numazu cases, where local authorities backed by citizen groups were able to successfully
impose tough pollution control standards), and waste management facilities (e.g., Tokyo
incinerator case). Following citizen concerns, many local governments adopted pollution
control standards stricter than national guidelines; later on, these standards were also
adopted by the national government, demonstrating the projection of citizen and local
government power to the national level.
Citizen pressure has also been effective in changing welfare policies, first at the
local level and eventually at the national level. Such pressure led to the adoption, initially
by the Tokyo city government in the early 1960s but eventually by close to 250 local
governments and also by the national government, of “progressive” welfare measures such
as free medical care for the aged and subsidies for unaccredited private sector child care
centers.
The process described above is one in which local governments, especially at the
municipality level, contributed to one important aspect of political development, that is
greater citizen participation in public affairs, through accepting citizen pressure, adopting
responsive policies, and projecting pressure upwards to higher levels of government. This
was not always a smooth process. Not all local governments were favorably inclined
towards citizen participation. Also, in some cases, local governments had to change their
own his