The official culmination of the presidential nomination process is at the national party conventions, where assembled delegates from around the coun¬try, voting by state, nominate the Democratic and Republican candidates for president. The process of selection of those delegates is a crucial point. A histor¬ical note is needed to begin the explanation.
Up through 1968, selection of delegates was basically a matter for individ¬ual states. Delegates were principally selected in and through local and state conventions, caucuses, and committees of party leaders. The selection process was a matter for the internal party organization, involving party leaders and prime party activists. A powerful governor, senator, or party boss would, in vari¬ous cases, effectively control the entire bloc of the state's delegates.
Bllt following 1968, especially due to dramatic events involving the Demo¬cratic party convention, the situation changed, with calls for more popular par¬ticipation in the process. Following the loss of the presidency in 1968, the Democratic party was moved to "open up" the process and encourage more par¬ticipation. The "reforms" the party effected—and later reforms of those reforms—dramatically changed the game of presidential nominations. These reforms spread over nearly all states for both parties, due especially to Demo¬cratic dominance of most state legislatures and to some similar impulses in the Republican party. The principal result of these reforms was to make the delegate selection process a very public one and to make primaries the dominant way that delegates are selected for the national party conventions. There were other changes as well, which are too detailed for treatment here. In general, however, the impacts of the changes have been great and the consequences profound." The interaction of the new delegate selection process with the new dominance of the mass media resulted in perhaps the greatest of those impacts. (Chapter 11 presents the evidence on that interaction and its impact.) We will next review the nature of the presidential nomination process today.
The American system is a federal one, which is why the nomination for the national office of the presidency is based on the building blocks of the 50 indi¬vidual states and the District of Columbia. The basic design of the system is to allow each of the 50 states to select delegates through one of two basic methods. The primary election is one method. In form a primary election is like a general election, except that it is intended for all those in the general public who identify with one party or the other to participate in the general process of choosing the party's nominee for president. (Some states have primaries that are not restricted to party members, which muddies the party nomination waters, but that side story must be pursued elsewhere.) States have differed in exactly how the primary relates to the selection of delegates. The most common approach
270
The Nature of the Electoral System and the Media Factor
has been to have the percentage of the vote directly translate into the same per¬centage of the state's allocated delegate total (usually calculated at the congres¬sional district level; the Democratic party moved to make this the standard approach in 1992). There have been variations on this approach, but that is the principal method. About two-thirds of the states, selecting about 70% of the delegates, now use the primary method. Primaries are different from general elections in another way that is vital to understand: Compared with general elections, voter turnout and attention to and knowledge of candidates are con¬siderably lower.
The second method of choosing delegates for the national conventions is the caucus-convention method. This three-stage method begins with caucuses (meetings) of all interested party identifiers in the precinct, where delegates arc selected by vote. Those delegates then proceed to county or congressional dis¬trict conventions, where they are winnowed down, followed by the same proce¬dure at the state conventions, where the actual delegates to the national con¬vention arc chosen. This method is intended to involve a higher level of participation by party identifiers in the public and to produce representatives of those party identifiers, who can cast a vote for specified candidates at higher-level conventions but can also represent their fellow party "members" more generally. Indeed, delegates can run as "uncommitted," and a number usually do. This leaves them the freedom to deliberate for their party constituency on the platform and on the candidates, in a way that can adapt to changed political conditions in the time since the original caucuses and county conventions. Thus, the caucus-convention method is not inherently undemocratic; in form, it is actually the essence of active democracy. This is important to mention because some members of the media have characterized this method as undem¬ocratic—or at least much less democratic than the primary election method. More people do participate in primaries than in caucuses, but the simple act of casting a primary ballot involves much less meaningful effort and democratic interaction than docs caucus participation; neither form yields a representative cross section of the general party.
Looked at as a whole, the presidential nomination process involves a succes¬sion of 50 state primaries and caucuses to select the delegates to the national conventions from those states. Traditionally, the precinct-level caucuses in Iowa have been the earliest of the state processes; they took place on the 10th of Feb¬ruary in 1992. New Hampshire's primary has traditionally been the first pri¬mary, now occurring a week after Iowa's caucuses. The primaries and caucuses in the rest of the states have been strung out from early March through early-June, with the national conventions occurring in July and August. It should be added that, due to the increased importance of popularly-based selection of del¬egates, national conventions are now rarely places where party leaders deliberate
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Chapter 10 The Media in Elections I
and choose a nominee; rather, the great majority of the delegates are already committed to a candidate and the winner is usually clear beforehand.
The presidential nomination process is then, a long, drawn-out process.12 The Democrats, since 1980, have sought to shorten the process, recognizing the complaints from many people of the absurdity of such a long, expensive, wear¬ing process, and one in which some delegates are selected five or six months before the convention, during which time much can change. But the stakes in the existing order are high for some states. This is because of the pattern of media attention to the early primaries and caucuses, which is detailed in the next chapter. The extreme amount of media attention given the earliest delegate selection events, along with the good chance the contest for the nomination will be effectively decided in the first half of that long succession of events, has led to many efforts by states to move up their primary or caucus to an early position, tor 1996, even more states have moved up their primaries to capture additional media and candidate attention, making the process even more "front-loaded" than in 1992. Richard Rubin has interestingly pointed out that from 1968 through 1976 television news played a prime role in "legitimating the primary process as the genuinely democratic way to choose convention delegates."1-' Whether all this is a sensible way to choose a presidential nominee is another story.
THE MEDIA IN ELECTIONS: METHODS OF STUDY
Elections have been the most studied facet of the political system. As we noted earlier, elections and the media's role in them are also matters about which most people have rough impressions and opinions, garnered haphazardly, as a rule. The rest of this chapter, however, discusses some of the more prominent sys¬tematic efforts to study the nature of the media's role in and impact on elections. Since the research on this subject has greatly increased and produced a multi¬tude of books, journal articles, and professional papers in recent years, we can only provide a sampling of the main methods. Further, of those significant stud¬ies we will look at, most involve many and complex considerations; we cannot review all the particulars. The following discussion of the main elements, with some questions raised about limits or weaknesses in the methods used, will hopefully provide a good introduction to the principles of systematic analysis of the media's role in elections.
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The Media in Elections: Methods of Study
Landmark Study of the Media in Elections: A Review of the Patterson Approach
If the mass media are the principal means of communicating the elements of an election to the public, then the logical first question is: What exactly are the media communicating? The news is, in form at least, the principal source of the public's information and impressions on election subjects (we will consider other prime sources, such as candidates' ads and televised debates, a bit later). As Thomas Patterson pointed out in his study, The Mass Media Election: "Election news results from a series of decisions made by news organizations about what to observe, what to report, and what emphasis to place on various parts of the coverage."14 Patterson's comprehensive study, which analyzed the media in the 1976 presidential election, is the landmark exemplification of how to analyze news coverage of elections. It has been both a guide and an inspiration for the major studies conducted since it was first published in 1980, and its findings remain a foundation of our understanding of this field.
The principal method for studying what has been communicated as election news is content analysis, which is the analysis of the number, placement, size, and content of elec