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2.3. Factors Influencing Learners’ Speaking Competence2.3.1. Cognitive factorsAccording to Levelt (1989), the speaking processes include conceptualization, formation, and articulation conceptualizationdeals with what information can be selected to express the meaning. Formulation needs the speaker to figure outwhat proper words to use in appropriate grammatical structure. And articulation requires the speaker to produce the speechwith his articulatory organs. Since all the three processes happen simultaneously, it is possible for learners to make mistakesespecially in face-to-face communication. Therefore their speaking maybe filled with "hesitation, false-starts, grammaticalinaccuracies, and limited vocabulary" (Hughes, 2002, p. 77). Besides, human's mind is a "limited capacity processor"(McLaughlin & Heredia, 1996, p. 214). So it is not easy to focus on everything at the same time. Over-focus on accuracymay cause the lack of fluency, and too much emphasis on fluency may lead to the lack of accuracy (Skehan & Foster,1999).2.3.2. Linguistic factorsThe correct use of language form is important for learner's oral proficiency (Saunders & O'Brien, 2006). Linguisticfactors include several features like pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. Pronunciation plays an important role in intelligibility(Goh, 2007). Mispronouncing a single sound or various uses of stresses and intonations cause the learner'smisunderstanding. In addition, grammar acts a key role in learning the structure of English. But learning the accurate use ofgrammar is one thing, correctly using it in one's speech is another. It is rather difficult EFL learners to transfer the correctgrammar to their speaking (Larsen-Freeman, 2001). Vocabulary is essential for EFL learners, it acts like bricks to a building.If the receptive vocabulary is rather limited, learners can hardly put the "receptive vocabulary knowledge into productiveuse" (Nation, 2001, p. 129), so it is necessary for EFL learners to store a wealth of vocabulary in their long-term memory.In addition, the ability to remember words from one's mind may cover the speaking fluency (Carter, 2001; Levelt, 1989).4 Developing EFL learners’ speaking ability, accuracy, and fluency2.3.3. Affective factorsBoth anxiety and self-restriction have an influence on learner's oral proficiency. Anxiety is the affective factor that"most pervasively obstructs the learning process (Arnold & Brown, 1999, p.8). Worrying about being "wrong, stupid, orincomprehensible" (Brown, 2001, p. 269) completely influences learners' speaking performance. Most of EFL learners arenervous in class (Liu, 2006), especially when they are asked to speak in class without any readiness. “Too much nervousnessmakes learners tongue-tied or lost for words” (Shumin, 2002, p. 206) and completely affects their achievement in foreignlanguage classroom (Zhang & Jia, 2006). Since risk taking is viewed as an essence for "successful learning of a secondlanguage" (Brown, 2007, p. 160), EFL learners should be motivated to speak bravely in order to promote their speakingcompetence gradually. Because "motivation is probably the most important factor that educators can target in order to improvelearning" (Olson, 1997) and "the expenditure of effort to accomplish results" (Dubrin, 2008).2.3.4. Components underlying speaking effectivenessHymes (1971) believes that L2 learners need to know not only the linguistic knowledge, but also the culturally acceptableways of interacting with others in different situations and relationships. His theory of communicative competenceconsists of the interaction of grammatical, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, and probabilistic language components. Accordingto Hymes's theory, Canale and Swain (1980) suggest that communicative competence consist of grammatical competence,discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence which reflect the use of linguisticsystem and the functional aspects of communication respectively.2.3.5. Grammatical competence"Grammatical competence is an umbrella concept that includes increasing expertise in grammar (morphology, syntax),vocabulary, and sounds of letters and syllables, pronunciation of words, intonation, and stress" (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992,p. 141). To understand meaning, EFL learners need to have enough knowledge of words and sentences: that is, they mustfigure out how words are segmented into various sounds, and how sentences are stressed in particular ways. So, grammaticalcompetence helps speakers to use and understand English language structures accurately and immediately, which facilitatestheir fluency (Richards & Renandya, 2002).2.3.6. Discourse competenceEFL learners should develop discourse competence through international relationships. The rules of cohesion and coherenceshould be applied in each discourse, whether formal or informal to hold the communication together in a meaningfulway (Richards &Ren
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