find solutions that are not immediately apparent, explain concepts, justify
their reasoning, and seek information. When we hold children accountable
for this kind of intelligent behavior, they take it as a signal that we think
they are smart, and they come to accept this judgment. The paradox is that
children become smart by being treated as if they already are intelligent
(Resnick & Hall, 1998).
A body of research deals with factors that seem to shape these habits,
factors that have to do with people’s beliefs about the relation between
effort and ability. The following discussion traces the historical pathways of
influential theories that have led to this new vision of intelligent behavior