context, learning is thought to be a matter of increasing the strength of the
“good,” or correct, bonds and decreasing the strength of the incorrect ones.
Spearman’s and Thorndike’s theories still serve educators as a rationale for
procedures such as tracking students according to high and low aptitude,
the bell curve, drill and practice, competition, frequent testing, ability
grouping, IQ scores as a basis for special education, task-analyzing learning
into separate skills, and reinforcement of learning by rewards and external
motivations (Resnick & Hall, 1998).
When people view their intelligence as a fixed and unchangeable entity,
they strive to obtain positive evaluations of their ability and to avoid displaying
evidence of inadequate ability. They believe their intelligence is
demonstrated in task performance: They either have or lack ability. This
negative self-concept influences effort. Effort and ability are negatively
related in determining achievement, and having to expend great effort with
a task is taken as a sign of low ability