but for the production run of each product model.
Product packaging costs: Multiple product units may be packaged in a single package; multiple packages may be filled in a single packaging run.
Machine testing and calibration costs: These operations are typically performed regularly and often, but not for each individual product unit.
Machine maintenance and cleaning costs: These operations, too, are performed after producing multiple product units.
The example below focuses on two product models manufactured and sold by one company, Model A and Model B. Some aspects of A and B compare as shown below in Table 1:
Products Compared Product A Product B
Selling Price Higher price Lower price
Materials purchased More materials purchase orders, smaller orders Fewer materials purchase orders, larger orders
Production
Runs More production runs, smaller runs Fewer production runs, larger runs
Mach.set ups More machine set ups Fewer machine set ups
Packaging 1 Unit per package 4 Units per package
Direct labor More direct labor required Less direct labor required
Direct materials Higher direct materials cost Lower direct materials cost
Table 1. Product A and Product B compared.
Management must estimate the profitability of each product in order to make decisions about which products to produce and sell and how to price them. This, in turn, requires an understanding of the full cost per unit of each product. While the direct costs per unit may be determined easily, the indirect costs are less obvious and will have to be found through a costing methodology—either traditional cost allocation or activity based costing.
Direct costs will be treated in the same way under both traditional costing and ABC. For direct costs, accountants measure a cost per product unit for each direct cost category. The two costing methods differ, however, in the way they assign the so-called indirect costs to products. Thus, the two costing approaches can give different pictures of the profitability of individual products.
Traditional costing explained with an example
In the previous accounting period, the company produced and sold 900,000 units of product A at $3.00 each, and 2,100,000 units of product B at $2.00 each. Table 2 below shows the resulting revenues and direct costs for these sales.
Products Compared Product A Product B Total
1. Units produced & sold 900,000 2,100,000 3,000,000
2. Selling price / unit $3.00 $2.00
3. Direct labor cost / unit $0.50 $0.50
4. Direct materials cost / unit $0.75 $0.50
5. Sales revenues [ = 1 * 2 ] $2,700,000 $4,200,000 $6,900,000
Direct costs
6. Direct labor costs [ = 1 * 3 ] $450,000 $1,050,000 $1,500,000
7. Direct materials costs [ = 1 * 4 ] $675,000 $1,050,000 $1,725,000
8. Total Direct costs [ = 6 + 7 ] $1,125,000 $2,100,000 $3,225,000
Table 2. Sales revenues and direct costs for Products A and B
The company's cost accountants will also find cost totals for support activities for the entire period production of products A and B. In traditional cost accounting, these are called "overhead" or "indirect costs," which can be summarized as shown in Table 3 below:
Indirect Components Prod. A & B Indirect % of Total Indirect
Materials purchasing $180,000 12.6%
Machine setups $375,000 26.4%
Product packaging $280,000 19.7%
Machine testing & calibration $300,000 21.1%
Machine maintenance & cleaning $287,000 20.2%
Total Indirect $1,422,500 100.0%
Table 3. Indirect cost components for Traditional costing
For the simple form of traditional cost accounting illustrated here, only the total indirect cost line from Table 3 is used. Traditionally, this cost total will be allocated to each of the products, A or B, based on proportional usage of a resource, usually one of the direct cost items. This approach is also called production volume based (PVB) cost allocation, for obvious reasons. In this approach, the total indirect cost could be allocated to Products A and B based on factors such as the proportion of total
• Production machine time used by each product.
• Direct labor costs used by each product.
• Factory floor space used by each product.
Other factors may also apply. For this example, company accountants chose to allocate indirect costs based on direct labor costs. The indirect cost total from Table 3 above is $1,422,500. The direct labor total (line 6 from Table 1) is $1,500,000. From these figures, indirect labor will be allocated to each product as a percentage of the product's own direct labor cost:
Indirect labor cost / direct labor cost proportion:
= $1,422,500 / $1,500,000
= 0.948 = 94.8%
• For product A, Direct labor costs are $450,00 (Table 2, line 6). The indirect cost allocation for A is 94.8% of this, or $426,750.
• For product B, Direct labor costs are $1,050,000 (Table 2, line 6). The indirect cost allocation for B is 94.8% of this, or $995,750.
Table 4, below, shows how this allocation is used to calculate indirect costs per unit, as well as gross profit and gross margin for each product unit.
Products Compared Product A Product B Total
9. Units produced and
sold [Table 2, line 1] 900,000 2,100,000 3,000,000
10. Total direct costs
[Table 2, line 8] $1,125,000 $2,100,000 $3,225,000
11. Total indirect costs
[allocation shown above] $426,750 $995,750 $1,422,500
12. Revenues per unit
[ Table 2, line 2 ] $3.00 $2.00
13. Direct costs / unit
[ = 10 / 9 ] $1.25 $1.00
14. Indirect costs / unit
[ = 11 / 9 ] $0.47 $0.47
15. Gross profit / unit
[ = 12 − 13 − 14 ] $1.28 $0.53
16. Gross profit margin
[ = 15 / 12 ] 42.5% 26.3%
Table 4. Gross profit and gross margin calculation for each product, using
traditional cost accounting approaches for indirect costs.
Conclusions: Traditional cost allocation (or product volume based allocation) example:
• Estimated Indirect cost per unit is the same for both products, $0.47 (Table 4, line 14). This must be the case, because indirect costs for both products use the same allocation rate ( 94.8%) applied to direct labor costs, based on the same direct labor rate ($0.50 / unit).
• On a per unit basis, this costing approach finds Product A more profitable than product B: The gross margin rate of 42.5% for A compares with a gross margin of 26.3% for B.
Activity based costing explained with an example
This section presents an ABC version of the product costing situation illustrated above. The example is meant to show that this method and traditional costing can lead to different cost estimates for indirect costs and thus to different profitability estimates for the same products. The example also shows clearly that this approach requires more data and more detailed analysis than the production volume based allocation approach in the earlier example.
ABC costing for the same product A and product B begins with the same summary of units produced and sold, sales revenues, and direct costs from the traditional example, as shown again in another copy of Table 2:
Products Compared Product A Product B Total
1. Units produced & sold 900,000 2,100,000 3,000,000
2. Selling price / unit $3.00 $2.00
3. Direct labor cost / unit $0.50 $0.50
4. Direct materials cost / unit $0.75 $0.50
5. Sales revenues [ = 1 * 2 ] $2,700,000 $4,200,000 $6,900,000
Direct costs
6. Direct labor costs [ = 1 * 3 ] $450,000 $1,050,000 $1,500,000
7. Direct materials costs [ = 1 * 4 ] $675,000 $1,050,000 $1,725,000
8. Total Direct costs [ = 6 + 7 ] $1,125,000 $2,100,000 $3,225,000
Table 2. Sales revenues and direct costs for Products A and B
In ABC, the "indirect" or "overhead" cost contributors are viewed as activity pools: an activity pool is the set of all activities required to complete a task, such as (process) "purchase orders" or (perform) "machine set ups."
النتائج (
العربية) 1:
[نسخ]نسخ!
ولكن للإنتاج تشغيل كل نموذج المنتج.تكاليف التعبئة والتغليف المنتجات: وحدات المنتج متعددة قد تكون حزم في حزمة واحدة؛ وقد شغل العديد من الحزم في عبوة واحدة تشغيل.آلة تكاليف الاختبار والمعايرة: عادة ما تجري هذه العمليات بانتظام وفي كثير من الأحيان، ولكن ليس لكل وحدة من المنتج الفردي.آلة صيانة وتنظيف التكاليف: يتم تنفيذ هذه العمليات، أيضا، بعد إنتاج وحدات المنتج متعددة. المثال أدناه يركز على اثنين نماذج المنتجات المصنعة والمباعة من قبل شركة واحدة، النموذج ألف والنموذج باء بعض الجوانب من مقارنة A و B كما هو موضح أدناه في الجدول 1:منتجات مقارنة ب منتج Aسعر أعلى سعر أقل سعر بيعشراء المواد أكثر من أوامر شراء المواد، أصغر أوامر شراء مواد أقل أوامر، أوامر أكبرإنتاجيعمل على تشغيل المزيد من الإنتاج، أصغر يدير يدير الإنتاج أقل، يدير أكبرMach.set شكا أكثر آلة مجموعة يو بي إس أقل آلة تعيين يو بي إسالتعبئة والتغليف 1 وحدة لكل حزمة 4 وحدات لكل حزمةالعمل المباشر أكثر مباشرة العمل المطلوبة أقل مباشرة العمل المطلوبةمواد مباشرة مواد مباشرة أعلى تكلفة أقل من تكلفة المواد المباشرةالجدول 1. المنتج أ وب المنتج مقارنة.Management must estimate the profitability of each product in order to make decisions about which products to produce and sell and how to price them. This, in turn, requires an understanding of the full cost per unit of each product. While the direct costs per unit may be determined easily, the indirect costs are less obvious and will have to be found through a costing methodology—either traditional cost allocation or activity based costing. Direct costs will be treated in the same way under both traditional costing and ABC. For direct costs, accountants measure a cost per product unit for each direct cost category. The two costing methods differ, however, in the way they assign the so-called indirect costs to products. Thus, the two costing approaches can give different pictures of the profitability of individual products. Traditional costing explained with an example In the previous accounting period, the company produced and sold 900,000 units of product A at $3.00 each, and 2,100,000 units of product B at $2.00 each. Table 2 below shows the resulting revenues and direct costs for these sales.Products Compared Product A Product B Total1. Units produced & sold 900,000 2,100,000 3,000,0002. Selling price / unit $3.00 $2.00 3. Direct labor cost / unit $0.50 $0.50 4. Direct materials cost / unit $0.75 $0.50 5. Sales revenues [ = 1 * 2 ] $2,700,000 $4,200,000 $6,900,000Direct costs 6-المباشرة تكاليف العمالة [= 1 * 3] $450,000 $1,050,000 $1,500,0007-المباشرة تكاليف المواد [= 1 * 4] $675,000 $1,050,000 $1,725,0008-مجموع التكاليف المباشرة [= 6 + 7] $1,125,000 $2,100,000 $3,225,000الجدول 2. إيرادات المبيعات والتكاليف المباشرة لمنتجات A و Bمحاسبين تكاليف للشركة سوف تجد أيضا إجماليات التكاليف لأنشطة الدعم لكامل فترة إنتاج منتجات A و b في محاسبة التكاليف التقليدية، تسمى هذه "النفقات العامة" أو "التكاليف غير المباشرة"، التي يمكن تلخيصها كما هو مبين في الجدول 3 أدناه: برود المكونات غير المباشرة. أ & ب % غير المباشرة من مجموع غير المباشرةالمواد شراء دولار 180,000 12.6 في المائةالأجهزة آلة $375,000 26.4%منتجات التغليف دولار 280,000 19.7%آلة اختبار ومعايرة دولار 300,000 21.1%الجهاز للصيانة والتنظيف دولار 287,000 20.2 في المائةإجمالي 1,422,500 $ غير المباشرة 100، 0 ٪الجدول 3. عناصر لحساب التكلفة التقليدية التكلفة المباشرةويستخدم نموذج بسيط لمحاسبة التكاليف التقليدية يتضح هنا، فقط غير المباشرة التكلفة الإجمالية سطر من الجدول 3. تقليديا، سيخصص هذا إجمالي التكلفة لكل من هذه المنتجات، ألف أو باء، استناداً إلى الاستخدام النسبي لمورد، وعادة ما تكون أحد بنود التكلفة المباشرة. ويسمى هذا النهج أيضا في حجم الإنتاج على أساس (بفب) تكلفة التوزيع، لأسباب واضحة. في هذا النهج، يمكن أن تخصص منتجات A و B على أساس عوامل مثل نسبة إجمالي التكاليف غير المباشرة• وقت آلة الإنتاج المستخدمة من قبل كل منتج.• Direct labor costs used by each product.• Factory floor space used by each product.Other factors may also apply. For this example, company accountants chose to allocate indirect costs based on direct labor costs. The indirect cost total from Table 3 above is $1,422,500. The direct labor total (line 6 from Table 1) is $1,500,000. From these figures, indirect labor will be allocated to each product as a percentage of the product's own direct labor cost:Indirect labor cost / direct labor cost proportion:= $1,422,500 / $1,500,000 = 0.948 = 94.8%• For product A, Direct labor costs are $450,00 (Table 2, line 6). The indirect cost allocation for A is 94.8% of this, or $426,750.• For product B, Direct labor costs are $1,050,000 (Table 2, line 6). The indirect cost allocation for B is 94.8% of this, or $995,750.Table 4, below, shows how this allocation is used to calculate indirect costs per unit, as well as gross profit and gross margin for each product unit.Products Compared Product A Product B Total9. Units produced and sold [Table 2, line 1] 900,000 2,100,000 3,000,00010. Total direct costs[Table 2, line 8] $1,125,000 $2,100,000 $3,225,00011. Total indirect costs[allocation shown above] $426,750 $995,750 $1,422,50012. Revenues per unit[ Table 2, line 2 ] $3.00 $2.00 13. Direct costs / unit[ = 10 / 9 ] $1.25 $1.00 14. Indirect costs / unit[ = 11 / 9 ] $0.47 $0.47 15. Gross profit / unit[ = 12 − 13 − 14 ] $1.28 $0.53 16. Gross profit margin[ = 15 / 12 ] 42.5% 26.3% Table 4. Gross profit and gross margin calculation for each product, usingtraditional cost accounting approaches for indirect costs.Conclusions: Traditional cost allocation (or product volume based allocation) example:• Estimated Indirect cost per unit is the same for both products, $0.47 (Table 4, line 14). This must be the case, because indirect costs for both products use the same allocation rate ( 94.8%) applied to direct labor costs, based on the same direct labor rate ($0.50 / unit).• On a per unit basis, this costing approach finds Product A more profitable than product B: The gross margin rate of 42.5% for A compares with a gross margin of 26.3% for B.Activity based costing explained with an example This section presents an ABC version of the product costing situation illustrated above. The example is meant to show that this method and traditional costing can lead to different cost estimates for indirect costs and thus to different profitability estimates for the same products. The example also shows clearly that this approach requires more data and more detailed analysis than the production volume based allocation approach in the earlier example. ABC costing for the same product A and product B begins with the same summary of units produced and sold, sales revenues, and direct costs from the traditional example, as shown again in another copy of Table 2:Products Compared Product A Product B Total1. Units produced & sold 900,000 2,100,000 3,000,0002. Selling price / unit $3.00 $2.00 3. Direct labor cost / unit $0.50 $0.50 4. Direct materials cost / unit $0.75 $0.50 5. Sales revenues [ = 1 * 2 ] $2,700,000 $4,200,000 $6,900,000Direct costs 6. Direct labor costs [ = 1 * 3 ] $450,000 $1,050,000 $1,500,0007. Direct materials costs [ = 1 * 4 ] $675,000 $1,050,000 $1,725,0008. Total Direct costs [ = 6 + 7 ] $1,125,000 $2,100,000 $3,225,000Table 2. Sales revenues and direct costs for Products A and BIn ABC, the "indirect" or "overhead" cost contributors are viewed as activity pools: an activity pool is the set of all activities required to complete a task, such as (process) "purchase orders" or (perform) "machine set ups."
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